The History of Hadrian's Wall: How the Romans Blocked The Caledonians

Hadrian's Wall. Image: Wikipedia/Johnnie Shannon. CC2.0.

Why Was Hadrian's Wall Built?

Hadrian’s Wall was called Vallum Hadriani and Vallum Aelium in Latin. It was a Roman-built turf and stone wall erected between the Solway Firth on the west coast to Wallsend, then called Segedunum, on the River Tyne in the northeast of the Province of Britannia.

It was constructed to protect the Roman-ruled people from Caledonia’s (broadly speaking, Scotland) Pict army’s insurgences and to intimidate the enemy. Its other primary purpose was to counter the easy transit across the border. It has long been assumed that the wall housed customs posts because smuggling was rife. The position of Hadrian’s Wall is not the same as the border between England and Scotland.

Emperor Hadrian's Defensive Wall

The manmade defensive barrier stretched continuously for 118km or 73 miles, and it was named after Emperor Hadrian, who reigned between 117 and 138 A.D. It took six years to build from 122 A.D., and it was the soldiers themselves who erected Hadrian’s Wall. Many of them were from the Legio VI Victrix, founded in 41 B.C. It was intended that any fighting would take place in the open spaces around the wall rather than from the wall itself.

Historia Augusta recorded that Hadrian was “the first to build a wall, 80 miles long to separate Romans from the barbarians.”

Saint Bede, also known as the Venerable Bede (c.672–735), lived for most of his life in Jarrow by the River Tyne. He wrote of Hadrian’s Wall, “It is eight feet in breadth, and twelve in height; and, as can be clearly seen to this day, ran straight from east to west.”

Hadrian's Wall Tells Its Own Story

Under the governorship of Hadrian’s friend and ally Aulus Platorius Nepos, the western section of the wall was designed prior to Hadrian’s arrival in Britannia, and it featured a turf wall at a 75% gradient with ramparts 20 Roman feet wide, slightly more than today’s foot measurement, at the base and with a ditch to the front. These sections were soon replaced by stone.

At 12 Roman feet high on the eastern side, the wall averaged 8 to 10 Roman feet wide. Every third of a Roman mile, a tower was built, and a milefort or fortlet was constructed at each Roman mile along the route.

Forts to house 600 soldiers were constructed 7 Roman miles apart. These included Mais, modern Bowness-on-Solway, Pons Aelius (Hadrian’s Bridge in English), which is today’s Newcastle-Upon-Tyne and Cilurnum in Walwick Chesters. They had a gate through the wall, barracks, a bathhouse and usually a tower.

Behind Hadrian's Wall, a vallum earthwork was dug. Defense was the watchword throughout the build. Almost 10,000 soldiers were stationed along the wall at any time during the Roman era.

Extensions and Alterations to the Landmark

The defensive buildings continued past the end of the wall down the Cumbrian coast towards Maryport so that there was maximum protection from invasion, and it discouraged smugglers from evading the authorities. Extensions to the wall were made in the years following the main build. It has been surmised that the entire wall was later plastered and whitewashed.

In 1930, R.G. Collingwood suggested that the vallum predated the wall and that the wall’s course was dictated by the drop in the ditch. This claim was countered in 1936 when it was found that the vallum was redirected so that it did not veer into one of the forts. The general opinion is that the wall and vallum were built and dug concurrently, which seems logical.

Humans Damage Hadrian's Wall

Throughout its history, the wall has suffered damage, often from people clambering over the no longer guarded surfaces or through the liberation of the stonework for housing or building projects, and of course, as a result of the long-lasting acrimony between England and Scotland until they were united.

Roads have sprung up and displaced expanses of the wall, but the remaining sections are awe-inspiring to see. In 2021, Northumbrian Water workers discovered a three-metre section as they carried out work in central Newcastle-Upon-Tyne. They altered the route of the pipework to leave the ancient wall undisturbed.

UNESCO World Heritage Site

In 1987, Hadrian’s Wall was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Unsurprisingly, excavations along the wall have revealed how the Romans lived in the forts and mileforts.

Since 2003, the Hadrian’s Wall Walk has operated along the wall’s route in six manageable sections of 12–16 miles. The walk is from east to west so that the wind is behind walkers, making it slightly easier. A cycle tour is available, and the “AD122” bus runs throughout the summer months for tourists who don’t feel inclined to exercise their limbs.

A New Roman Ruler and the Antonine Wall

Antonius Pius succeeded Hadrian in 138, and he decided to create another wall deeper into what we know as Scotland. He reduced the number of soldiers at Hadrian’s Wall as his project seemed to make the earlier wall surplus to requirements. His wall was the 59km- or 37-mile-long Antonine Wall, but this wall was forsaken during his reign in favour of Hadrian’s more effective wall.

Hadrian’s Wall was still an active boundary at the end of the Roman Empire. Antonine’s reign came to an end in 161 A.D. The Antonine Wall was given UNESCO World Heritage Site status in 2008.

Sources

• Hadrian's Wall - World History Encyclopedia
  
• Hadrian's Wall | Roman wall, England, United Kingdom | Britannica
  
• Hadrian's Wall Path - National Trails

Queen Victoria Survived 8 Assassination Attempts

 

Edward Oxford's assassination attempt on Queen Victoria. 1840. 

Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain. 

Queen Victoria Was Not Beloved By All

Although being a monarch may seem an enviable role, it carries anxieties which most people don’t have to deal with. One of these is the risk of assassination. Kings George III, Edward VIII and Edward VII, when he was the Prince of Wales, managed to fend off attacks from disillusioned, anarchistic or possibly insane assassins. Being female offered and offers no protection; Elizabeth II  thankfully survived several attempts on her life and the diminutive powerhouse that was Queen Victoria (1819–1901) survived eight assassination attempts during her long reign.

Shots Fired at the Queen in Hyde Park

On the 10th June 1840, 18-year-old Edward Oxford fired two pistols at the pregnant queen from a short distance away as she rode in an open carriage through Hyde Park and on to Constitution Hill in London with her husband Prince Albert (1819–1861). Oxford missed her, and she was uninjured primarily because she believed the sound of the first pistol shot came from the park, probably someone shooting a bird, and so she turned to look. Realising that a pistol, Oxford’s second one, was pointed at her, she ducked down, and his shot whistled overhead.

The crowd trapped Oxford and the queen and Prince Albert nervously continued their outing to demonstrate they were very much alive and that they trusted that not all of their subjects wielded weapons. Edward Oxford was declared insane and sent to Broadmoor Hospital in Berkshire. After over two decades in an asylum, he was deported to Australia.

Assassination Attempt on The Mall

On the 29th May 1842, John Francis intended to shoot the queen as she proceeded along The Mall with Prince Albert after their Sunday worship. Fortunately for Victoria, he either lost his nerve or his gun misfired, and he fled the scene via Green Park. The queen refused to be restricted to the palace and reasoned that the quickest way to apprehend the would-be assassin was for her to venture out again.

John Francis returned to The Mall on the evening of the 30th May 1842. This time, his shot missed the queen and Prince Albert as they sat nervously in their carriage. He was swiftly apprehended by the plain-clothed policemen on watch. In response to his actions, and probably Edward Oxford’s a couple of years before, the 1842 Treason Act was introduced. John Francis was sentenced to death, but this was commuted to transportation by Queen Victoria.

Just over a month after Francis’ attempts, teenager John William Bean fired a gun filled with paper, tobacco and clay piping, but his shots missed Victoria, Albert and their guest, Leopold, King of the Belgians as they journeyed along The Mall on the 3rd July 1842. Bean was spotted as he removed his gun from his coat and fled. A search was done, and Bean was arrested and sentenced to 18 months in prison with hard labour, because although the materials released from the weapon were not lethal, the paper in the shot could have set the queen’s dress on fire.

An Attempt Not Meant to Cause Harm?

William Hamilton fired a blank towards Victoria’s carriage on the 19th June 1849 from almost the same position that Edward Oxford had chosen in 1840. He swore that he intended no harm to the monarch. His motive for the act was that he was destitute, weary of being out of work and he believed that whilst in a prison he would at least eat properly and have a roof over his head. He was sentenced to seven years of transportation which he spent incarcerated in sunny Gibraltar.

An Attack That Left the Queen Injured

Another regicide attempt was made in late June 1850. Robert Pate, an ex-army officer, was notorious in London and even known by the queen because he often, allegedly, goose-stepped around Hyde Park. He managed to injure Queen Victoria whilst she was sat in her phaeton outside Cambridge House after paying a visit to her dying uncle Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge.

Pate struck her with an iron-tipped cane, and she was left with a black eye, a bleeding wound and scarring. Her bonnet was smashed on impact. Pate was wrestled away by the crowd. That evening, the queen defiantly attended the opera and did not disguise her black eye. She was hailed as a hero; Pate was sentenced to seven years transportation in Tasmania.

A Teenage Offender

On the 29th February 1872, 17-year-old Irishman Arthur O’Connor scaled the fence and loitered on the grounds of Buckingham Palace undetected. He wanted to persuade the queen to free every Irish prisoner held in Britain. O’Connor aimed a pistol at her face as she stepped out of her carriage after taking a trip around the royal parks, but he was overpowered by her trusted servant, John Brown and arrested.

He claimed that he had no intention of killing Victoria, but he was determined to frighten her into signing documents that secured the release of prisoners. He was sentenced to one year in prison and 20 strikes with the birch. He was eventually sent to Australia. John Brown was rewarded with a medal and money by his grateful and devoted queen. Newspaper reports boldly stated that the queen was unaffected by the event, but privately, she considered that this attempt on her life at her home was the most frightening of all the attempts.

"Guilty but Insane" Verdict

Roderick Maclean made the last assassination attempt on Victoria in March 1882. Twenty-eight-year-old Maclean was a mentally ill vagrant and poet. He became fixated with her. He also apparently loathed the number 4 and claimed to have tried seven or eight times to shoot Victoria before this attempt.

Maclean shot at Victoria in her carriage at Windsor railway station as she travelled to the castle. He was thrown to the ground by onlookers. When he was tried for treason, Maclean was found “not guilty by reason of insanity.” The queen was dissatisfied with the verdict, and an alteration in the law ensued to allow harsher sentencing. The verdict of “guilty but insane” came into use which was deemed more appropriate. Roderick Maclean spent the remainder of his life in asylums.

Who would want to be a monarch? I'll pass, thanks.

Sources

• The Assassination Attempts on Queen Victoria - History of Royal Women
  
• 8 Times Queen Victoria Survived Attempted Assassinations - HISTORY
  
  

Prince John: The British Royal Most People Don't Know Existed

Prince John of Wales. Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain.

 

H.R.H. Prince John of Wales

Prince John (1905–1919) was the youngest son of King George V (1865–1936) and Queen Mary (1867–1953). He was born on 12th July 1905 at York Cottage on the Sandringham estate and christened on the 3rd August at the nearby St. Mary Magdalene Church by Reverend Canon John Neale Dalton. Given the name John Charles Francis, he was known as Johnnie to the family. He was titled His Royal Highness Prince John of Wales at birth.

When King Edward VII (1841–1910,) his grandfather, died in May 1910, his father became monarch, and John was placed fifth in the line of succession to the British throne after his siblings David (Edward VIII), Albert (George VI), Henry, later Duke of Gloucester and George, later Duke of York. His sister Mary, later Princess Royal, was below them in the line of succession, although she was older than Henry, George and John, thanks to the rule of primogeniture. Today’s fourth in line to the throne, Prince Louis of Cambridge, is familiar to us, so why do so many people not know that John existed?

Prince John, Retired From Public Life

In 1909, the royal family discovered that John, who was developing less quickly than expected, suffered from epilepsy. Autism and learning difficulties have also been speculated upon. Although George and Mary acted as parents in that era would have done by shielding him from public view, this has frequently been interpreted as cruelty on their part.

The king and his consort realised that John's condition, which deteriorated over time, meant that he could not play the role of a royal in the public eye, scrutinised and bearing the stress of ceremonies and the constraints that being the son of the king inevitably brought. Their solution was to give him peace and a "normal" life. As he was prone to misbehaving and did not bow willingly to discipline, this seemed a practical and compassionate decision. The public was not made aware of his illness until after Prince John passed away. They simply stopped seeing John in public after the age of 11.

The criticism that has followed through the decades led The British Epileptic Association to comment, "There was nothing unusual in what [the King and Queen] did. At that time, people with epilepsy were put apart from the rest of the community. They were often put in epilepsy colonies or mental institutions. It was thought to be a form of mental illness."

Part of the Royal and Sandringham Families

Privately, he was included in family occasions, and Princess Mary and Prince George were particularly caring towards their little brother. The king was a rigid disciplinarian but indulged John. One incident was related by Princess Alice of Athlone (1883–1981): “ ... one evening when Uncle George returned from stalking he bent over Aunt May and kissed her, and they heard Johnny soliloquize, 'She kissed Papa, ugly old man!'” None of the other children would have been spared the king’s anger. In this, John was probably envied by his siblings.

Unlike them, he was not sent to school, and his education was eventually abandoned. In 1916, the king and queen installed John in his own household at Wood Farm, again on the Sandringham estate, in the care of the trusted and sympathetic governess Charlotte “Lala” Bill (1874–1964), who was a devoted mother figure to him.

He was not held in the cottage as a prisoner or shunned and reviled by those nearest to him as has been suggested by commentators. He became friendly with several of the children with parents who worked on the estate, and he was visited regularly by his relations. He also tended his own garden with a local girl named Winifred Thomas, who suffered from asthma and was in Norfolk to improve her health. She remembered John fondly and was his main companion.

A Life Cut Short

With the pressures of World War One, John saw his parents infrequently between 1914 and 1918. His seizures worsened as time progressed, and as his brothers and sister were upset by his deterioration, they chose to see him less often.

He spent Christmas Day 1918 at Sandringham House, celebrating with the family. Little did anyone know that this was his last season of goodwill. On the 18th of January 1919, 13-year-old John suffered a severe seizure and died in his sleep hours later.

He was buried at St. Mary Magdalene Church on 21st January 1919. He was greatly mourned by his parents and the wider royal family, with one notable exception. David, the future Edward VIII, considered that his youngest brother was like an animal and that his death was “little more than a regrettable nuisance.” He even wrote a vile and tactless letter about John to Queen Mary, which he was rebuked for.

David was forced to apologise, but how genuine this was is debatable. The letter has been lost. Lala Bill had long before accepted that John might die young but she was still heartbroken. Lala kept a portrait of John above her mantelpiece until she died in 1964. Winifred Thomas received some of John’s books from Queen Mary, which the queen inscribed for her.

In 2003, Stephen Poliakoff’s drama The Lost Prince focused on John’s short life. Whilst it is a little romanticised, it is also a good way to spend a few hours. You can't help thinking at least someone remembered him.

Prince John Through The Years: Youtube: Alpha Beta @AlphaBetaDeltaGamma

Sources

• Amazon.com: The Quest for Queen Mary
  "The Quest for Queen Mary" by James Pope-Hennessy
• Prince John, the forgotten son of the House of Windsor | Royal Central
  
  
• Prince John of the United Kingdom | Unofficial Royalty

British Honours: The M.B.E., O.B.E. and C.B.E. Explained

What Are M.B.E.s, O.B.E.s and C.B.E.s?

In order, lowest to highest, the three awards are:

• M.B.E.: Member of the British Empire.
• O.B.E.: Officer of the British Empire.
• C.B.E.: Commander of the British Empire.

The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire’s M.B.E., O.B.E and C.B.E. were created by King George V (1865-1936) to honour people who had made invaluable contributions in non-military roles throughout World War One. For example, nurses and doctors toiling in the U.K. as their military counterparts worked on the front line.

The order and the awards are still popular and widely respected over 100 years later (except by people who deem them elitist or outdated), but today the honours extend to celebrities, from actors to dancers, writers to musicians and sportspeople to entertainers.

People do not have to accept the award offered, and there have been notable refusals in the order’s history, including author C.S. Lewis, Beatle George Harrison and author Roald Dahl (both allegedly wanted knighthoods) and artist L.S. Lowry who refused every honour offered to him.

A Different Kind of Honour

The order was markedly different from other honours in that civilians and women were eligible to receive awards from its inception. Holders have proved themselves in the face of adversity.

Today, nominations for awards can be made to officials at St. James’ Palace. A committee makes its selection of proposed awards, and this list is forwarded to the Prime Minister for approval and, lastly, to King Charles III.

The M.B.E., O.B.E. and C.B.E. are bestowed at new year and the monarch’s official birthday annually. Investitures then take place at a royal palace, often Buckingham Palace, where the recipients receive their awards. Details are published by the government and in the official register in The London Gazette; this publication has been in operation since Charles II's reign (1630-1685, r. 1660-1685).

The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire has other ranks, including Companion of Honour, knights and dames. These rank higher than M.B.E., O.B.E and C.B.E.

Any recipient of an award in the order can apply to the Royal College of Arms to have a bespoke coat of arms created for them.

Member of the Order of the British Empire: M.B.E.

This honour recognises a significant achievement or outstanding service, very often at a local community level. It is a sign that the person has positively motivated and contributed to the neighbourhood, for example, through a youth club or fundraising. It is also given to public figures who have achieved and can inspire others. Olympians are frequently given these awards after a successful event at the iconic games.

There is no limit to the number of members in the order at any time, but a maximum of one thousand four hundred and sixty-four may be created during one year.

The badge is a cross patonce of plain silver. It is worn on the left breast by males and from a decorative bow on the left shoulder by females. A lapel pin is available for everyday wear.

Officer of the Order of the British Empire: O.B.E.

The Officer of the British Empire award is given to people who make major contributions in a particular activity or area. These people would normally be known to the nation for their endeavours, for example an explorer or an actor.

The House of Commons Select Committee suggested in 2004 that the name should be altered to Order of British Excellence to make it sound less militaristic. This did not happen and no further mention has been made of a name change.

There isn’t a limit to the number of O.B.E. holders but a maximum of eight hundred and fifty eight are permitted to be created in one year. There are over one hundred thousand people alive who have received an O.B.E.

The badge for officers is a plain gold cross patonce. The O.B.E. is worn on a ribbon on the left breast by men and on a bowed ribbon on the left shoulder by women. A lapel pin is available for everyday use. The pins were introduced in 2006.

Commander of the Order of the British Empire: C.B.E.

Commander of the British Empire is awarded to a person who deserves recognition for their innovations, efforts and achievements at a national or regional level. Internationally recognised sportspeople, writers, directors and actors are frequently awarded this after a significant role or project. Although in 2004, the House of Commons Select Committee submitted that the word Commander should be changed to Companion, this did not occur.

There is a limit of 8,960 holders of this honour at any time.

The badge is worn by males on a ribbon around their neck and females wear it from a bow on their left shoulder. The circlet of the order with the badge suspended from it may be shown on a recipient’s coat of arms.

A lapel pin is available for everyday use.

In a nutshell, trying to make the world a better place, either on your doorstep or further afield can lead to the bonus of a prestigious honour. Love the idea or loathe the allusion to historic empire days, the Order of the British Empire seems here to stay.

Sources

• The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire | British order of knighthood | Britannica
  
• Receiving an honour - UK Honours System
  
• https://www.gov.uk/honours/types-of-honours-and-awards

European Historical Figures: Napoleon's Ex, Desiree Clary: Queen Desideria of Sweden and Norway

Desiree Clary, Queen Desideria of Sweden and Norway. 

Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain.

Desiree Clary: Youngest Child of Francois and Francoise

Bernadine Eugenie Desiree Clary was born on the 8th of November 1777 in Marseille, southern France. She was the youngest of nine children born to wealthy silk merchant Francois Clary and his second wife, Francoise. Francois' first marriage produced four children. She was known as Eugenie within the family, as Desiree to the French and, from 1810, as Desideria to the people of Sweden and Norway.

She received a traditional convent education away from her relations until the French Revolution erupted and all convents were closed. She returned to the Clary home aged eleven years old, and from this time, she was home-schooled. Later commentators referred to her education as "shallow." Mademoiselle Clary was amiable but often unpunctual, a habit that she retained throughout her life.

In 1794 Francois Clary passed away. It was discovered that he had asked to be raised to the nobility prior to the French Revolution. No longer able to punish Francois, the authorities imprisoned Desiree's eldest half-brother and guardian, Etienne Clary. Desiree bravely petitioned notable figures to secure Etienne's release from prison, and during the process, she met Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon.

Engaged to Joseph and Napoleon Bonaparte and General Duphot

Joseph Bonaparte pursued Desiree, and he proposed to her, but at Napoleon's suggestion, Joseph married her elder sister (Marie) Julie Clary. Napoleon and Desiree were engaged in April 1795, but their marriage never took place because he met Josephine de Beauharnais and discarded Desiree in September 1795. The following year he married Josephine.

Joseph Bonaparte was appointed the French Ambassador to the Papal States in 1797. Julie accompanied her husband to Rome, and they took Desiree with them. They lived at the opulent Palazzo Corsini.

French soldier and poet General Mathurin-Leonard Duphot was on Joseph's staff, and they plotted to incite a republican rebellion in Rome. Desiree was soon engaged to Duphot, who was tempted by her wealth and enviable closeness to the mighty Bonaparte family. He set aside his long-term lover and child to enable a union with Desiree. It's believed that Napoleon engineered the match as a form of compensation to Desiree.

On 30th December 1797, the day before their wedding, Duphot was assassinated during an anti-French riot in the city. His death gave Napoleon an excuse to occupy the Papal States, which he renamed the Roman Republic. In her later years, Desiree denied that a relationship and engagement with Duphot ever took place.

Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, Crown Prince of Sweden

Desiree, Julie and Joseph returned to Paris when Napoleon established his Roman Republic. She met the noted French soldier and politician Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, and they married on the 17th August 1798. Their son Joseph Francois Oscar was born on 4th July 1799. Napoleon was his godfather.

In 1804 Napoleon appointed Jean Baptiste one of the eighteen Marechal's de France, and he was sent to govern Hanover, which had recently come into Napoleon's possession. He awarded his former fiancée a grand Parisian townhouse which she retained for her lifetime, and a generous allowance.

Desiree became one of the great hosts of the Paris elite. Jean Baptiste was often absent, so she basked in her popularity and said she only felt at home and accepted in the city. She infrequently visited her husband.

In August 1810, Jean Baptiste was elected the Crown Prince of Sweden and Norway. He settled in Sweden, but it took until December 1810 for Desiree to join him because she dreaded bidding farewell to her beloved Paris.

Desideria, Queen Consort of Sweden and Norway

Crown Princess Desideria (the Swedish form of Desiree) discovered quickly that she detested Sweden. She and reigning Queen Hedwig had a fraught relationship. The queen found the new crown princess's endless complaints tiresome. Desiree abhorred the court formalities, and the Scandinavian weather was too severe for her. Desiree was soon back in Paris "for her health", and in France, she used her subsidiary title Countess of Gotland. Jean Baptiste and Oscar (Oskar in Swedish) remained in Stockholm.

She acted as a conduit for news between Napoleon and Jean Baptiste. When Napoleon was exiled, Desiree ingratiated herself with King Louis XVIII of France. Using this friendship, she ensured that her sister Julie, former queen consort of Spain, the Indies and Naples, was not exiled from the country. Joseph fled to America. Julie relocated to Brussels in Belgium.

On 5th February 1818, Jean Baptiste ascended to the throne as King Carl XIV Johan (Charles XIV John) of Sweden and Norway. He was the first Bernadotte ruler; the dynasty still rules in Sweden today. Desiree was an absent queen consort.

Josephine de Beauharnais' Granddaughter

Desiree finally returned to Sweden in 1823 when Crown Prince Oskar, who she had not seen between 1811 and 1822 was due to marry the granddaughter of Alexandre and Josephine de Beauharnais, Napoleon's first wife. Through her grandmother, the bride Princess Josephine of Leuchtenberg could trace her ancestry back to Gustav I of Sweden from the former ruling house of Vasa, so the marriage was seen as a way of solidifying the position of the Bernadotte line in Swedish history.

She took on the Swedish form of her name Josefina, and the couple were married by proxy on 22nd May 1823 and in person in Stockholm on 19th June 1823. Their marriage was generally happy, and it produced five children. Oscar's affairs were tolerated in silence by his wife.

Josefina took some of Josephine de Beauharnais' jewels with her to Sweden in 1823. The pieces, including the cameo tiara, have been worn by several generations of Bernadotte women.

The Working Queen Consort

Desiree planned to go home to Paris as soon as the wedding festivities were over, but she probably surprised herself by remaining in Sweden, where she undertook the responsibilities of queen consort. She soon tired of the royal treadmill, refused to learn Swedish or Norwegian, and she wasn't keen to embrace her subjects.

On the 21st August 1829, she finally had her Swedish coronation. As a Roman Catholic, she was not given a coronation in Lutheran Norway. However, she was more popular in Norway than in Sweden.

One suggested reason for her reluctance to leave Sweden despite longing for the old days in France was that she was petrified of sea travel. Fear outweighed courage and desire.

The king died in 1844, and Oskar and Josefina took the throne. She became Queen Dowager Desideria, and she spent the rest of her life moving between the Haga, Drottningholm and Stockholm palaces.

She died on 17th December 1860 in Stockholm. She was buried adjacent to her husband in the Bernadotte Chapel in Riddarholm Church, Stockholm.

Through Desiree and Julie Clary, five European royal families have Clary ancestors: Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Belgium and Luxembourg.

Sources

• Clary, Désirée, Napoleon's fiancee, marshal Bernadotte's wife | Napoléon & Empire
  
• Desideria – queen from a distance | The Royal Palaces
  
• Désirée Clary, Queen Desideria of Sweden and Norway | Unofficial Royalty

Fort Belvedere, Windsor: Home of King Edward VIII Before Abdication

 

Fort Belvedere, King Edward VIII's home prior to his 1936 abdication.

Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain.

Fort Belvedere, 1936: The Scene of King Edward VIII's Abdication

Fort Belvedere is set within 59 acres of Windsor Great Park, close to Windsor Castle and the village of Sunningdale. It is a Grade II listed building, which means that it has a protected status. It is best known as the country residence of King Edward VIII (1894-1972) prior to his abdication.

The fort was where he signed the Instrument of Abdication on the evening of 10th December 1936 so that he could marry Wallis Simpson. On the 11th of December, he addressed the nation by radio from Windsor Castle, and at 13:52 that day, he officially ceased to rule. His reign lasted for 325 days.

This remains the property's strongest claim to fame in royal and British history. It is referred to today as the forgotten royal residence. In 2022, William and Catherine, Prince and Princess of Wales, selected their new Windsor home. There were rumours that Fort Belvedere was a contender, but they chose Adelaide Cottage, built for and named after Adelaide, the wife and consort of King William IV (1765-1837). It's rather more substantial than a quaint English cottage.

William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland's Summer House

Windsor Castle is in the county of Berkshire, but Fort Belvedere sits just over the county boundary in Surrey. From Fort Belvedere's flagstaff tower, seven English counties can be seen on a clear day.

Situated at the south end of Windsor Great Park, the original and smaller property that became known as Fort Belvedere was constructed between 1750 and 1755 for King George II's (1683-1760) youngest son William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland (1721-1765). Designed by eminent architect Henry Flitcroft and shielded from onlookers by a cluster of trees, it was called Shrubs Hill Tower.

William Augustus used the triangular construction for pleasure; it was his summer house and folly. He commissioned a manmade lake, Virginia Water, to enhance his view. This work was completed by Thomas and Paul Sandby.

Fort Belvedere as a Hunting Lodge, Tea House and Tourist Attraction

In 1828 the summer house was converted into a gothic-style hunting lodge by Sir James Wyattville, who had previously worked on Windsor Castle's renovations for King George IV (1762-1830). The tower was made taller, and extensions included an octagonal dining room. The total cost of the project was approximately £4000.

Between 1840 and 1907, Queen Victoria ordered that all gun salutes at Windsor marking royal births, deaths and any official events were to be fired from an 18th-century gun parked at Fort Belvedere. The man charged with the task of firing the salutes lived in the three-storey Bombardiers Cottage adjacent to the fort. The queen frequently used Fort Belvedere as a tea house, and from the 1860s, she opened the property to the public.

Grace and Favour Home and The Prince of Wales

In 1910, the beginning of King George V's (1865-1936) reign the property was again renovated and repurposed as a seven-bedroom "grace and favour" residence for Arthur, Duke of Connaught's (1850-1942) Comptroller of the Household Sir Malcolm Murray and his family. The Duke, the third son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, resided at nearby Bagshot Park. (Today, this is the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh's residence).

In 1929 George V's eldest son Edward, Prince of Wales, known as David to the family, was given Fort Belvedere as his official Windsor residence. Edward remodelled the property to his tastes. A central heating system and a steam room were installed, and extensive stables were built.

Edward hosted lavish and hedonistic parties with enviable (or inadvisable) guest lists and entertainment. He courted the disapproval of his father by stubbornly refusing to behave as George V believed that an heir to the throne should. Edward stated that he spent some of his happiest days at Fort Belvedere.

It was at the fort that Edward's brother George, Duke of Kent (1902-1942), was weaned off drugs (cocaine and morphine) by his worried and guilt-ridden big brother.

A Bitter Duke of Windsor Loses Fort Belvedere

George V died on 20th January 1936. During his final years, he had become convinced that his son and heir would fail as a king. It was a position with a workload that the trendsetting, golf-playing, partying, Wallis Simpson-infatuated prince had no appetite for.

As a king, Edward used the fort as his home because he preferred it to the official royal residences. Wallis Simpson moved in with him in 1936 after she received death threats.

It was at the fort that the Instrument of Abdication was signed and witnessed by his three brothers, including the new king George VI, previously Albert, Duke of York. Edward and Wallis married in France in 1937, and they were titled the Duke and Duchess of Windsor. (She was never permitted the style of Her Royal Highness).

The Duke of Windsor hoped to return to England when the proverbial dust settled, so he continued to pay the insurance and maintenance costs for Fort Belvedere for four more years. In 1940 he was informed that his abdication had effectively ended his right to reside in the property. It was a possession of the crown. It is still in the Crown Estate's portfolio today.

Crown Estate Leases to Royal and Private Tenants

During World War II, Fort Belvedere was requisitioned for office space. Virginia Water Lake, the Duke of Cumberland's water feature, was drained because it could be identified by enemy aircrews easily.

The property lay empty for almost a decade after the war.

George V and Queen Mary's only daughter Mary, Princess Royal, Viscountess Lascelles, had two sons, and the younger one The Honourable Gerald Lascelles, and his wife Angela leased the property on a 99-year agreement in 1953. They lived there between 1956 and 1976, and they carried out extensive renovations. Their divorce in 1976 necessitated the sale of the remainder of the lease.

The next resident was a son of the Emir of Dubai. In the early 1980s, a friend of the royal family, Canadian billionaire Galen Weston and his wife Hilary, the 26th Lieutenant-General of Ontario, took over the lease, and they used Fort Belvedere as their U.K. base. When he died in Toronto in April 2021, the property lease was returned to Crown Estates.

Find out about Buckingham Palace's surprising history here.

Sources

• Fort Belvedere, Surrey
  
• Fort Belvedere: The forgotten royal residence of King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson | Express.co.uk
  
• Fort Belvedere, Windsor Great Park | Unofficial Royalty

Richard Roose: The Cook That King Henry VIII Boiled to Death

Richard Roose cooked for John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (above) and his guests. He was boiled to death on King Henry VIII's orders. Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain.

Richard Roose: Tudor Poisoner?

Welcome to a Tudor whodunnit.

Richard Roose, Rose or Cooke may not have been born with any of those names and he might not have been the full-time cook at the Lambeth (London) property of John Fisher, the Bishop of Rochester; well known as King Henry VIII's enemy.

At lunchtime on the 18th February 1531, Richard Roose was in the bishop's kitchen. Before nightfall he was infamous. Several of the bishop's guests and the poor of London were victims of poisoning, allegedly at his hands, and two of them were dead. As conspiracy theories swirled about who, if anyone, asked Roose to poison the diners Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn and her family were implicated.

Henry VIII was paranoid about being poisoned. He was not the first ruler in history to use boiling as a method of execution (Emperor Nero was fond of boiling Christians) but he was the first to change the law so that poisoning was classed as treason punishable by boiling. 

How John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester Knew Henry VIII

Yorkshire-born John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (c.1469-1535) studied at Cambridge University and he was employed by Margaret Beaufort, Henry VIII's grandmother, as her chaplain and confessor.

In October 1504 he was awarded the role of Bishop of Rochester by the pope and Fisher helped to educate the future King Henry VIII. In 1509 he officiated at the funerals of Margaret Beaufort and her son Henry VII.

When Henry VIII decided to rid himself of Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn, John Fisher was Catherine's main supporter. As Henry attacked the Catholic church and subsequently declared himself the head of the Church of England, Fisher accepted the new church but only "so far as God's law permits." (He wanted to keep his head on his shoulders and not compromise his principles).

In early 1531 the Bishop of Rochester was secretly plotting with his church colleagues to overthrow Henry VIII. Did Henry know about this?

The 18th February 1531: Two Die, Numerous Left Sick

At lunchtime on the 18th February 1531, Richard Roose prepared some porridge (other records state pottage) for the bishop and his guests, the household staff and for Lambeth's poor. When the guests ate the porridge all sixteen became ill. One, Bennett Curwen, died.

Meanwhile, a beggar named Alice knocked at the kitchen door asking for food. She was an unlucky recipient of the porridge and she too died. John Fisher ate nothing for lunch, we don't know why.

The bishop's brother Richard, in charge of the household, swiftly drew the conclusion that Roose was to blame for the apparent poisoning. Roose ran from the house only to be captured later in another part of London.

He was tortured on the rack and he confessed to adding a powder to the porridge. The powder was passed to him by an unknown man and Roose believed that it was a laxative so that he could play a practical joke. The deed was intended to incapacitate the diners not to kill them. A lie or an odd sense of humour?

The Boleyn Connection to the Bishop of Rochester

While Roose awaited his fate, cannonballs were fired at Fisher's house and the trajectory suggested that they were fired from Anne Boleyn's father's property Durham House.

Anne Boleyn and the Boleyn family also found themselves under suspicion regarding the poisonings. Had one of them or their staff given the "laxative" to Roose? Fisher was unpopular with the Boleyns because he supported Catherine of Aragon. It was mooted that one of the family fired the cannonballs when the poison didn't deliver the desired deadly result.

Another theory emerged that cited King Henry VIII as the instigator of the poisoning. He and Fisher had a long and strained relationship so were the king's faithful servants, spies or courtiers sent to Fisher's Lambeth property to remove an enemy?

Was Roose a pawn in royal or Boleyn's plans? There was never any proof that Roose acted with or for someone else or that he knowingly added poison to the porridge.

The "Acte of Poysonyng" Rapidly Passed

Henry VIII was always suspicious about what his enemies might do. He was paranoid about his food being meddled with and the Richard Roose case apparently heightened his fears. Alternatively, was he worried that his guilt would be determined?

On 28th February 1531, King Henry spoke for well over an hour in the House of Lords. He intoned against the act of poisoning and he stressed the need for the meting of justice to be increased. The Spanish envoy Chapuys wondered if the king was concentrating on Roose's harsh punishment to divert attention from himself.

The speech achieved its goal. The "Acte of Poysonyng" was hastily passed. It made poisoning an act of treason punishable by boiling to death. Richard Roose was found guilty without a trial and he was told that he could not offer a defence. Part of the new law meant that no clergy were permitted at executions by boiling.

Why was Henry VIII so keen to accept Roose's guilt without any evidence and why did he petition for a swift change in the law?

"He roared mighty loud, and divers women who were big with child did feel sick at the sight of what they saw, and were carried away half dead; and other men and women did not seem frightened by the boiling alive, but would prefer to see the headsman at his work."

Two Hour Execution: Roose Boiled to Death

The public agreed with their great king about Roose's depravity and on the 15th April 1532 a crowd gathered in Smithfield, London to watch him die.

Roose was placed on a gibbet, hung but kept alive, and then at intervals he was lowered three times into a pot of boiling water. Contemporary records show that it took two hours for him to die. The punishment was intended to last as long as it would have taken him to prepare the poisoned porridge.

So, whodunnit? I'll let you decide whether Roose was guilty, a pawn in a powerful game or innocent.

Sources

• Boiling | Execution, History, Cruelty | Britannica
  
• Richard Roose Boiled to Death - 5 April 1531 - The Anne Boleyn Files
  
• Prankster or Assassin? How Richard Roose Made Henry VIII Change the Law - Historic Mysteries

Famous Historical Battles: The One Shot Battle of the Soup Kettle

A depiction of the Battle of the Soup Kettle. Image: Wikipedia/Rijksmuseum CC0. 

The Marmite War/Marmietenoorlog

On the 8th of October 1784 an infamous historical battle occurred. This day marked the Battle of the Soup Kettle, also called the Marmite War (a marmite in this instance being a kettle, not a yeast product), the Kettle War, and the Boiler War. The Dutch refer to it as both Keteloorlog and Marmietenoorlog.

On one side was the Spanish Netherlands backed by the massively powerful Holy Roman Empire, and on the other was the much smaller Republic of the Seven Netherlands, the northern Dutch provinces. This was one of the shortest and most baffling European battles to ever take place and it was utterly bloodless. Only one shot was fired and it hit a soup kettle.

Why Did The Battle Occur?

We need to go back to 1585 to find the root of the problem, and that was, as is often the case, money. The House of Habsburg ruled Spain as part of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain had control of all of the Netherlands until seven states rebelled and formed a republic. Surprisingly they were permitted to do so by the Habsburgs who soon wished that they’d thought their decision through.

The new Dutch Republic’s rulers closed the 270-mile-long River Scheldt to the Spanish Netherlands. As the river led to the busy ports of Antwerp and Ghent in modern-day Belgium and into the North Sea via Dutch Zeeland this barrier to a key trade route limited the Spanish Netherlands' opportunities and revenues.

Resentment festered as the Scheldt and its ports remained out of reach. The Spanish Habsburgs were unsuccessful in gaining access to the waterway in the 1648 treaty, the Peace of Westphalia, which upheld the closure of the River Scheldt by the republic.

In 1714, after the thirteen-year-long War of the Spanish Succession’s conclusion, the Spanish Netherlands was transferred to the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs. They were as keen as their Spanish relatives to have the Scheldt opened to them. All requests were denied, the war had left the republic almost bankrupt and so every florin they could get into their coffers was vital.

Finally, in 1784, Emperor Joseph II took his chance to secure access to the Scheldt.

The Habsburgs Challenge Stadtholder William V

The Dutch Republic's ruler Stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange. was not universally loved because the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of 1780 placed great strain on the republic and it brought defeats. His leadership and pro-British stance were questioned.

William’s chief adviser Field Marshal Ludwig Ernst, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel-Bevern (1718-1788) also happened to be Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor’s (1741-1790) great uncle. He was partly culpable for the losses of the Anglo-Dutch War but in the press, he was vilified. The people believed that William V’s errors were due to the duke’s incompetency in raising and guiding him. The duke was stripped of his duties and, in disgrace, he left the republic on October 14th, 1784. William was unable to recover. He eventually fled to exile in Britain in 1795.

Joseph II, the first of the Habsburg-Lorraine rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, was known as an “enlightened despot” and with the destabilisation in the Dutch provinces, he ordered that the River Scheldt be opened to the empire’s ships so his merchants could trade. He also lobbied for the territories of Overmass and States Flanders to be returned to the empire and for Maastricht to be evacuated. Words brought no reward so Joseph sent three ships including his shiny new flagship Le Louis onto the River Scheldt to provoke a response from the republic.

The Blink-And-You-Miss-It Kettle War

The Dutch sent one ship, De Dolfijn. The ships met at the point the Scheldt gives way to the North Sea, near the lost village of Saeftinghe in Zeeland. De Dolfijn fired one shot towards Le Louis which hit and destroyed the soup kettle on board. The captain of Le Louis surrendered immediately. Why he did this remains a mystery. Whilst he may have been alarmed, Le Louis was a far greater threat to De Dolfijn than the other way around.

In a one-on-one battle, there would have been few bets on De Dolfijn and the Dutch republic’s victory. Le Louis had two support ships. This was a David and Goliath moment. In case you were wondering, the only casualty, the soup kettle, didn’t survive the battle.

8 Years Later...

Unsurprisingly, Emperor Joseph was incandescent when he learned that his mighty empire had capitulated to one ship from a small republic and with just one shot. He declared war on the Dutch Republic and on land he had greater success. Dykes were shattered and mass flooding killed and ruined the Dutch, William V agreed to negotiate. The resulting agreement left the River Scheldt closed to the Austrian Netherlands but with generous compensation. The several million florins paid helped fund the Austrian army’s expansion. (No news about a replacement soup kettle for Le Louis.)

As the Europe we know today became more clearly defined, so too were the access rights to the numerous trade routes. In 1792, just eight years later, the Dutch Republic was forced by the French to reopen the river. The French had been in an alliance with Austria since 1756 and the French empire was ruled by Louis XVI and his Austrian-born wife Marie Antoinette, Joseph II’s youngest sister.

The Low Countries of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were established with their own monarchies in the wake of Napoleon Bonaparte’s insurgences and eventual downfall.

Sources

• De Keteloorlog (Marmietenoorlog) | Kunst en Cultuur: Oorlog
  
• A Brief History of: The Kettle War - YouTube
  
• 4 More of the Stupidest Wars in World History | Military.com

Amazing History Fact: In 1593 Ruthless Irish Pirate Grace O' Malley Charmed Queen Elizabeth I

 

Irish female pirate Grace O'Malley met Queen Elizabeth I in 1593. Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain. 

Grace O' Malley, Grainne Ni Mhaille

Formidable Grace O' Malley (Grainne Ni Mhaille) was born in 1530 in Umhaill on the west coast of Ireland in todays County Mayo. She was the well educated daughter of the seafaring clan chief Eoghan Dubhdara Ó Máille and his wife Me Ni Mhaille.

She was primarily raised on Clare Island, then called Inishcleer, three miles west of Clew Bay. Its castle became one of Grace's strongholds during her reign and it was called Caisleán Ghráinne meaning Grace's Castle.

Legend has it that a young Grace was not permitted to accompany her father on a voyage to Spain. He told her that her hair would get caught in the ships ropes. So, determined to set sail she hacked off her hair. This was when another of her names Grainne Mhaol was born; in Irish maol meant bald or cropped hair.

She became an unforgiving chief of Clan O'Maille and the "Pirate Queen." Passing ships crews felt her might as she demanded their treasures and money. She commandeered coastal castles from rival clans and she was content to spill blood to achieve her goals.

There were no contemporary portraits or sketches of her so her appearance remains a mystery to us. Yet those who met her and survived probably remembered her vividly.

Grace Marries Donal an Chogaidh O' Flaithbheartaigh

In 1546 Grace was dynastically married to neighbouring clan heir Donal an Chogaidh O' Flaithbheartaigh of Clan Ó Flaithbheartaigh or Clan O'Flaherty. Their lands lay in what is County Galway today.

The couple had three children. Eoghan or Owen, Meadhdh or Maeve and Murchadh or Murrough.

As an adult Eoghan was murdered by Tudor statesman Sir Richard Bingham, more about him later. Spirited Meadhdh emulated her mother and Murchadh refused to listen to or respect Grace because she was a mere female. He betrayed his family by allying himself with Bingham.

From 1542 the English monarch was also the ruler of Ireland according to Tudor law. By 1564 this was the fiery haired and strong willed Elizabeth I. The queen vetoed Donal's succession as clan chief and she placed his relative Murrough na dTuadh Ó Flaithbheartaigh in his place. Donal's dynastic hopes were destroyed.

Clan O'Maille Defeats Clans Joyce and MacMahon

His luck did not improve. The following year Donal was assassinated in an ambush staged by Clan Joyce. He had been engaged in a land dispute that Clan Joyce must have believed was over when Donal was slain but Grace shed few tears and set to work defending her property. She secured the defeat and retreat of Clan Joyce's army.

Grace took a sailor from a shipwrecked craft as her lover although this liaison was unexpectedly short because members of Clan MacMahon murdered him. Grace's revenge was to seize the MacMahon's Castle Doona and she slayed her lovers killers. She was known after this bloody assault as the Dark Lady of Doona.

Grace's second marriage in 1565/1566 was to Risdeárd an Iarainn (Iron Richard) Bourke, 18th Mac William Íochtar (of the Mayo Bourkes). Their son TIbbot na Long Bourke (Theobald) became the 1st Viscount Mayo in 1627.

The Tudor Conquest of Ireland

By 1576 Elizabeth I's Tudor armies had gained power in Ireland. The clans and their chiefs fell under the control of Elizabeth's Lord Deputy Sir Henry Sidney. Grace was often onboard ship conducting her lucrative piracy business and she seemed to accept the new order but it was claimed by the queen's Governor of Connacht Sir Richard Bingham that Grace plotted or participated in countless rebellions against Tudor rule.

Bingham loathed Grace and all that she stood for. In 1886 he had her incarcerated and she narrowly escaped the death sentence.

In 1593 Grace sailed to England to arrange an urgent meeting with Queen Elizabeth I at Greenwich Palace, London. In the days before Grace set sail her son Eoghan was murdered by Bingham and her youngest son Tibbot and her half brother Donal na Piopa were imprisoned by him.

She was determined to inform the queen in person that this was the latest episode in Bingham's long campaign of victimisation and that she wanted Elizabeth to order him to stop immediately.

"There came to mee a most famous femynyne sea captain called Grace Imallye, and offred her service unto me, wheresoever I woulde command her, with three gallyes and two hundred fightinge men ..."

Sir Henry Sidney, Lord Deputy in a 1577 letter to his son Philip.

Grace O'Malley and Elizabeth I Unite

Grace gained access to the queen through her cousin and court favourite the Earl of Ormond and Elizabeth's chief advisor William Cecil, Lord Burghley. Cecil asked Grace to complete a long questionnaire referred to as the Articles of Interrogatory before he consented to her audience with Elizabeth.

Grace O'Malley must have charmed the queen. Elizabeth recorded that Grace "departeth with great thankfulness and with many more earnest promises that she will, as long as she lives, continue a dutiful subject, yea and will employ all her power to offend and prosecute any offender against Us."

Sir Richard Bingham received his orders from Elizabeth through Grace face to face. Inevitably he didn't believe Grace when she ordered him to release the prisoners, restore her lands and award her a pension in the queen's name. He delayed and was rebuked by Elizabeth. Grace took the queen's support in this matter as permission to return to piracy.

Sir Richard Bingham's Fall From Grace

Bingham had no intention of allowing Grace to terrorise the sailors passing through local waters into the Atlantic. He installed soldiers on her ships and he used her vessels to suppress his enemies and her allies. Grace was soon destitute. Again, she sought redress through the Earl of Ormond, Lord Burghley and Elizabeth I. The queen supported Grace's claim for freedom on her own ships. Bingham received another royal rebuke. This time he took note.

Two years into the Nine Year's War, an Irish revolt led by the Earl of Tyrone against English rule that began in May 1593, Bingham fled from Ireland and he was imprisoned in England. He died in 1599. His replacement Sir Conyers Clifford caused Grace less trouble.

Grace died in 1603, the same year as Queen Elizabeth I. Although the date and location of Grace's death have been disputed it's thought that she was buried in Clare Island Abbey which was the O'Maille dynasty's traditional burial place.

Sources

• Grace O' Malley | Irish female pirate | Royal Museums Greenwich
  
• O'Malley, Grace | Encyclopedia.com
  
• Grace O'Malley - World History Encyclopedia