Madame de Pompadour, Louis XV of France's Love

 

Who Was Madame de Pompadour's Father?

On the 29th of December 1721 Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, better known as Madame de Pompadour and mistress of King Louis XV of France (1710-1774) was born in Paris to financier Francois Poisson and his wife Louise-Madeleine. Or rather, that was the respectable version of events. It’s likely that Jeanne was the daughter of either the tax collector Charles Francois Paul Le Normant de Tournehem or the financier Jean Paris de Monmartel.

Francois Poisson fled France when Jeanne was four years old because he had unpaid debts, which carried the potential punishment of a death sentence. It was eight years before the authorities informed him that he could return home as his name had been cleared. Jeanne’s legal guardian from 1725 was Charles, the tax collector.

When she was nine years old, her mother took her to see Madame de Lebon, a fortune teller who predicted that Jeanne would one day hold the heart of a king. After visiting de Lebon, their time was spent preparing Jeanne for her distant role of the love of a king, an outcome which was never in question as far as Louise-Madeleine was concerned. She called her daughter Reinette ("little queen").

Reinette's First Marriage

Aged nineteen, Jeanne was married to the nephew of Charles Le Normant de Tournehem, the tax collector. Charles Guillaume Le Norman d’Etiolles became the elder Charles’ sole heir when he disinherited his other nieces and nephews. A great fortune was settled on Charles Guillaume and Jeanne. Charles the Elder made Jeanne a gift of the extensive Etiolles Estate situated on the edge of a royal hunting ground in Senart in north-central France.

Charles Guillaume was deeply in love with her, and for her part, she promised that she would only leave him when the king formed an attachment to her.

Two children were born to the couple: a son who died in infancy and a daughter Alexandrine, known as Fanfan. She passed away at age nine.

Attracting Louis XV's Attention

When Louis XV of France came to the throne following the long reign of Louis XIV (1638-1715), he was just five years old so a regency was appointed to carry out the day to day running of his realm until he was thirteen years old, then considered the age of maturity. Louis had his coronation ceremony in October 1722 at Reims Cathedral, and he made his main residence Versailles instead of Paris' Louvre Palace, which his predecessors had resided in. In 1725, he married Maria Leszczynska (1703-1768), the daughter of deposed ruler Stanislaw I Leszczynski of Poland and his wife Catherine.

Jeanne contrived a meeting with the unsuspecting king at his hunting ground in the forest of Senart. She, as his neighbour, was permitted to follow the king’s hunt at a distance. This was not sufficient for Jeanne. She rode directly in front of the king twice, once in a blue dress in a pink phaeton and secondly in a pink dress aboard a blue phaeton. He sent her some venison but did not knock at her door declaring his lust for her. 

Louis XV's mistress Marie Anne de Mailly, Madame de Chateauroux, died in December 1744, and two months later, Jeanne received an invitation to attend a ball at Versailles.

Marquise de Pompadour

Louis XV, wearing a mask and accompanied by several courtiers, loudly proclaimed his affection for Jeanne at the Versailles ball and then unmasked himself. She was installed at Versailles in March 1745 and her rooms were above the king’s. By May, Louis had organised Jeanne and Charles Guillaume’s official separation. Her husband never forgave her for deserting him. Divorce was not viable in resolutely Catholic France, so Charles Guillaume kept a series of mistresses.

 

The King was with me as often as the affairs of the crown would allow; leaving all grandeur behind him...”

— Madame de Pompadour

Marriage, Money and Property

On the 24^th of June, Jeanne was created the Marquise de Pompadour, and she made her debut at the court of Versailles on the 14^th September. She cleverly tried to make great friends of the members of France’s royal family. She was not universally accepted. Numerous courtiers were scandalised that the king’s mistress was of lowly stock, a commoner, and they used her maiden name against her. Poisson, the French for fish, offered opportunities for insults, witticisms and puns and libellous texts known as poissonades. The slights privately upset her, but she did not show it publicly.

Sadly, her mother Louise-Madeleine passed away on Christmas Day 1745, so she did not see Jeanne’s installation as the undisputed maitresse en titre, official primary mistress, to Louis XV.

Parc au Cerfs

Other courtiers ingratiated themselves with Jeanne so that she would petition the king on their behalf. Louis trusted her to tell him the truth. She became indispensable to him as an unofficial president-prime minister, influencing the appointments and dismissals from high positions. Jeanne was raised to the rank of duchess on 12th October 1752, and she was a lady in waiting to Queen Marie from 1756.

Contrary to rumours, Madame de Pompadour did not provide girls for the king’s pleasure. The Parc au Cerfs (Stag Park) on the Versailles grounds was not the brothel of legend, with Jeanne acting as a madam. Apparently, it housed one woman at a time, albeit in sometimes quick succession as Louis became bored easily. Jeanne preferred the park to having a rival at court. The ladies of the Parc au Cerfs did not have his heart as she did, and in her opinion, they were incapable of usurping her.

By 1750, Louis and Jeanne’s passion had turned into a strong friendship. Jeanne accepted the responsibility for the shift in their relationship; her ill health often left her indisposed, and she claimed to suffer from a “cold temperament,” a low libido. She presented herself increasingly through art commissions as the devoted friend and confidante of his majesty.

Au Revoir King Louis

In the 1760s, Jeanne fell ill with tuberculosis. The king took time to care for her as she faded. Madame de Pompadour died aged forty-two on 15th April 1764 at Versailles. She was buried at the Capuchin convent in Paris, where her mother and daughter already lay.

Jeanne’s estranged husband, Charles Guillaume, quietly married his mistress, the dancer Marie Aimee Maltha, the mother of several of his children. Queen Marie was the longest-serving queen consort in French history, at 43 years. She passed away in June 1768. Louis XV survived until 10^th May 1774, when smallpox claimed him.

Further reading: Nancy Mitford: Madame de Pompadour, 1954 and Madame de Pompadour's two volume memoirs.

Sources

• Mitford, Nancy, & Foreman, Amanda. (2012). Madame de Pompadour (eBook). NYRB Classics
  

• Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson, marquise de Pompadour | French Aristocrat | Britannica

• Madame de Pompadour Was Far More Than a ‘Mistress’ |Smart News | Smithsonian Magazine

• Madame de Pompadour: Rococo style icon | Art UK

Anne Neville, King Richard III's Forgotten Wife and Queen

 

Anne Neville, Queen Consort and King Richard III depicted in the Salisbury Roll. (Roll of Arms). 

Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain.  

Who Was Anne Neville?

Researching Anne Neville's story is like trying to complete a jigsaw that you don't have all the pieces for. She was a queen, wife, daughter and mother during the tumultuous Wars of the Roses. Yet there are no accurate visual representations or vivid descriptions of her. The information that we do have indicates that her 28-year-long life was crammed full of power play, prestige and personal losses.

Wars of the Roses

Anne Neville was born on the 11th of June 1456 at Warwick Castle. Her parents were the powerful and ambitious Richard Neville, the 16th Earl of Warwick (1428–1471), and his wife Anne Beauchamp (1426–1492). She was their second daughter. Isabel (1451–1476) was five years older. The Earl and Countess had no more children.

The Earl was later known as The Kingmaker because of his pivotal role in the Wars of the Roses, firstly on the York side against Lancastrian king Henry VI (1421–1471). His nephew Edward of York (1442–1483) was proclaimed King Edward IV in 1461. Secondly, Warwick's defection to the Lancastrian cause delivered him to death in the spring of 1471.

Anne Neville was a first cousin of Edward IV and his younger brothers George, Duke of Clarence (1449–1478) and Richard, Duke of Gloucester (1452–1485).

Most of Anne’s early years were spent at Middleham Castle, another of the Nevilles' residences. It was here that Anne and Isabel grew familiar with royals George and Richard, who were honing their etiquette and battle skills at the castle under the earl’s guidance. Early on in their lives, plans were made for George to marry Isabel and for Anne to marry Richard. Isabel married her royal in 1469.

Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales

Disillusioned with Edward IV, Warwick switched to the Lancastrian side and promised Anne to Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou’s only son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales (1453–1471). The marriage ceremony was delayed until Warwick realised his scheme to restore Henry VI to the throne.

Edward and Anne were married in December 1470 at Angers Cathedral in France and she became the Princess of Wales. Little did she realise that within months her father and her husband would be dead. Edward IV launched a series of counterattacks. Warwick died at the Battle of Barnet in April 1471 as he tried to flee the battlefield. Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales was slain at the Battle of Tewkesbury on the 4th May 1471.

Although the legend has it that Richard, Duke of Gloucester dispensed with Henry VI, this was probably on his orders rather than at his hand. The official story was that Henry VI died from melancholy whilst held in the Tower of London.

Richard, Duke of Gloucester And Widow Anne

A dispute broke out between George, Duke of Clarence and Richard, Duke of Gloucester. Richard wanted to marry Anne Neville but George opposed the match primarily because he wanted the Warwick properties for himself via Isabel. If Richard made a claim to them after marrying Anne, George’s portion of the spoils would be less. It’s believed that George went to the extraordinary lengths of placing Anne, whom he was monitoring on Edward IV's behalf, in a shop and he dressed her as a servant so that Richard could not find her, let alone marry her. Richard did find her though, at the Church of St. Martin’s Le Grand in the City of London.

Richard and Anne were married in the spring of 1472, after George, Duke of Clarence was awarded the lion's share of the Warwick inheritance. Pope Sixtus IV (1414–1484) was consulted for permission, as Anne’s marriage to Richard’s Lancastrian cousin meant that papal approval was necessary for her to marry another family member. The true date of the wedding ceremony is not clear but it definitely took place at the Palace of Westminster, probably in early to mid summer. Anne was the new Duchess of Gloucester.

She bore a son, Edward of Middleham. He was probably born around December 1473 and he died on the 9th April 1484. Richard and Anne never recovered from the loss of their only child.

How Richard Became King Richard III

In 1476, Isabel, Duchess of Clarence, died a couple of months after giving birth to her fourth child. During 1477 and into 1478, George, Duke of Clarence repeatedly asserted his opinion that she had been murdered. His choice of a new bride was not approved by Edward IV. George grew unstable and involved himself in a rebellion to overthrow Edward. As this constituted treason, the king had him privately executed. An unproven but intriguing rumour spread that he had met his death in a vat of Malmsey wine.

Clarence’s surviving children, Margaret and Edward, were excluded from the succession and they were placed under Anne Neville’s care for a while. Margaret and Edward were executed by Henry VIII and Henry VII respectively for attempting to realise their claims to the throne.

When Edward IV died in 1483, his son Edward became king with Richard, Duke of Gloucester as Lord Protector. Edward V and his brother Richard were held at the Tower of London where they disappeared. Richard claimed that Edward IV’s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, the princes' mother, was bigamous because Edward was already married to Lady Eleanor Talbot (1436–1468), the daughter of the 1st Earl and Countess of Shrewsbury. It was commonly believed that the boys died in mysterious circumstances and at their uncle’s hand or instruction.

A Short And Tragic Reign (1483-1485)

Ruthless Richard became King Richard III and Anne was his queen consort. Their coronation was held on 6th July 1483 at Westminster Abbey.

Anne died on the 16th March 1485 from tuberculosis, although grief over her son's death was given as a cause. The day that she died there was a solar eclipse; this was seen as a bad omen for Richard III. He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field on the 22nd August 1485. 

We'll never know how involved Anne Neville was in decision-making in her private and queenly roles. The scenes in which she performed changed often, loyalties shifted, and legitimacy and integrity were under scrutiny. Perhaps in her 28 years, she saw more "life" than many of us would wish to encounter.

Sources:

• Anne Neville's Final Months by Alex Taylor - The Tudor Society

• Anne Neville - A woman of "gracious fame"; (Part one) - History of Royal Women

• Anne Neville - A woman of "gracious fame"; (Part two) - History of Royal Women

• Anne Neville, Queen of England | Unofficial Royalty

• Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales | Unofficial Royalty

Princess Victoria: "A Glorified Maid"

Toria, Princess Victoria of Wales/United Kingdom.  Who would want to be a princess? 

Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain. 

Princess Victoria of Wales: "Toria"

Her Royal Highness Princess Victoria Alexandra Olga Mary of Wales was born on the 6th of July 1868 at Marlborough House, a short distance from Buckingham Palace in London. Her parents were the future King Edward VII (1841–1910) and Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925,) known to their family and friends as Bertie and Alix. Victoria was given the name Toria among her relatives to distinguish her from her aunt, Crown Princess Victoria of Prussia (1840–1901).

She had three elder siblings and two younger ones. Albert Victor, George and Louise arrived in 1864, 1865 and 1867, respectively. In November 1869, Maud was born, and the tragically short-lived Prince Alexander John completed the family in April 1871.

The Boisterous Wales'

Christened at Marlborough House with nine royal godparents, including Tsar Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881) and Caroline Amalie, the Dowager Queen of Denmark (1796–1881), Toria was part of a rowdy, playful family that preferred leaping on the fine furniture to quiet pursuits and lessons, which frequently met with the disapproval of Queen Victoria, their grandmother.

Alix, always a possessive mother, insisted that her children called her Motherdear. George, the future King George V (1865–1936), was Toria’s favourite. Brother and sister remained devoted to one another all their lives. At Marlborough House and Sandringham in Norfolk, the sisters were educated together by tutors. Summers were often spent in Denmark with her numerous relations.

Toria was described as "mischievous... smart, tall and elegant; she had a wonderful sense of humour and was a good friend to everyone." Throughout her life, she enjoyed having pets, even keeping a tamed pigeon, carrying it around in a basket and taking it for walks. She liked cycling, horse riding, dancing and music, but her favourite pastime was photography. She collated several exceptional photo albums that have been used in exhibitions.

No Royal Marriage

 She rejected a marriage proposal from her first cousin Crown Prince Christian of Denmark (1870–1947), and although Carlos of Portugal (1863–1908) reputedly asked for her to marry him, she, in agreement with her parents, declined on religious grounds. She had no wish to convert from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism, which was a non-negotiable factor in the match.

The future Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (1868–1918), his cousin Sandro, the Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich (1866–1933), and Nicky’s younger brother Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich (1878–1918) “Misha” all pursued Toria, but their advances came to nothing. Alix persuaded Toria to resist marriage. Louise and Maud succeeded in marrying, and she was loathed to let her remaining daughter leave her side. Bertie was hardly ever with her, and she’d endured decades of his infidelities. Alix needed a devoted companion. That role apparently fell to Toria.

The former Prime Minister and widower Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery (1847–1929), proposed to her. Although she was the one who unwillingly uttered the word no, it was her parents, particularly her mother, who decided her fate. Bertie saw no place for politicians in the royal family, so he vetoed a marriage, but Alix discouraged the match, as she had with the previous suitors, for more selfish reasons. Rosebery did not marry again. Toria never married.

"A Glorified Maid"

Her cousin Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia (1882–1960) claimed that Tora was a “glorified maid” to Motherdear. Toria acted as her mother’s companion until the 20th of November 1925, Alix’s death. Whilst she loved her mother deeply, there were numerous times when she put her mother’s needs far above her own, and this built resentment, and her health declined. There were countless frustrating instances in which Alix called for her daughter’s assistance only to have seemingly forgotten why she wanted her by the time she reached her.

It seems highly unlikely that Alix, who presumably felt a sense of entitlement about keeping Toria for herself, appreciated the demands she placed on her daughter. Toria was expected to be content as Motherdear’s companion. Why would she be otherwise? It simply would not have registered in Alix’s mind.

Motherdear's Effects on Toria

Toria increasingly tended towards hypochondria and was said to be bitter about her lot in life. Occasionally, her harsh words wounded others. She was labelled a “bitch of the first order” by her nephew David, the petulant King Edward VIII (1894–1972.) It seems probable that her illnesses and difficult nature were manifestations of her frustration with her stifling existence. Toria’s brother George became king when their father died in May 1910, and he did what he could to ease the strain on her. Toria had little in common with his wife, Queen Mary, so she did not confide in her.

In 1917, in line with the other members of the royal family, she discarded the name Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and became a Windsor. Her circumstances remained unaltered for another eight years.

Retirement at Coppins

In late November 1925, Toria grieved for the loss of her mother but she also entered a form of retirement. Leaving Alix’s beloved Sandringham for her brother George to utilise, Toria chose to live at Coppins in the small village of Iver in Buckinghamshire, where she committed herself to the local community’s needs.

She invited guests to stay at Coppins, including Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, whom she retained as a friend in the years after his proposal until his passing in 1929. She pursued photography, gardened and helped a friend design the splendid Cestyll Gardens in Anglesey, Wales. Toria became a patron of three talented musical sisters and she never lost her love for music. Her health was a constant drain on her energy.

Farewell Toria and George V

She died on the 3rd December 1935 and was quietly buried at St. George’s Chapel, Windsor four days later and then moved to Frogmore Mausoleum at Windsor. Her favourite brother George was devastated. Already suffering from poor health, the grief proved too much for him. He survived Toria by just five weeks, passing away on the 20th January 1936.

She left Coppins to her nephew George, Duke of Kent (1902–1942). It has since been sold.

Sources:

• Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom | Unofficial Royalty

• Van der Kiste, John. (1980). Edward VII's Children (eBook). The History Press.
  
  

• Princess Victoria
  
  

George IV: Meet Britain's Most Unpopular Monarch

King George IV: "A Voluptuary Under The Horrors of Digestion" by James Gillray. 
Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain.

George IV: Vain, Lazy, Hedonistic, Arrogant...

In my opinion, Britain’s most hated king has to be George IV (1762–1830.) This Hanoverian was debauched, arrogant and unapologetic about his behaviour. Although he was an intelligent young prince who could have excelled and done more, especially in the spheres of art and architecture, George chose to revel like every day was his last.

From an early age, George, Prince of Wales, was more interested in fashion, women and having fun than he was in being a responsible king in waiting. His father, George III (1738–1820), despaired of him and tried to keep the prince away from his five younger brothers so that they might not fall into his bad habits. Even without his direct influence, with the exception of Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, the brothers found improper pursuits, and debts were soon a part of their lives.

Throughout his life, George gambled, accrued eye-wateringly huge debts and had a legion of mistresses, from actress Mary Robinson and alleged spy Grace Dalrymple to the Lady's Jersey and Coyningham. He married the widow Maria Fitzherbert in secret, guaranteeing his father, King George III's displeasure.

In his courtier Charles Greville's view, "a more contemptible, cowardly, unfeeling, selfish dog does not exist….” With George, everything except duty was done to excess. When he died in 1830, not even The Times newspaper pretended that the people were grief-stricken.

Maria Fitzherbert

After a few dalliances, George married Maria Fitzherbert, a Catholic widow, because she refused to be his mistress. He had threatened to kill himself if he lost her, but she still hadn’t been persuaded to yield to his advances. This royal marriage was against the rules. Maria was a commoner, a Catholic, and therefore not the legally required Protestant bride, and she was not approved by George III. The king wanted a dynastic match with a royal relation for the heir to the throne. The younger George hid the union. The wedding was held in Maria’s drawing room on the 15th of December 1785, with Reverend Burt officiating. Maria’s uncle and brother were the only other people present.

Royal Marriage: Caroline of Brunswick

George’s debts escalated, and George III instructed him to marry a royal bride. On the day of his wedding, his debts of £600,000 would be cleared. The king chose George’s first cousin, Princess Caroline Amalie Elisabeth of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The younger George sent a short note to Maria telling her that their marriage was over.

Caroline was not classed as beautiful, but she was popular in the royal marriage market despite her alleged poor hygiene. George, Prince of Wales, was desperate to clear his debts. The couple detested one another when they met just prior to the wedding. George, drunk and unable to stand unsupported, had to be prompted by his father to speak his vows. She thought his portrait was too flattering. He spent their wedding night drunk by the fireplace, but they must have slept together at least once. (He claimed three times). Nine months later, Princess Charlotte arrived.

The Prince and Princess of Wales at War

George changed his will after Charlotte’s arrival. In it, he left Caroline, as he openly wondered whether she was a virgin on their wedding night, the insult of a shilling as a bequest. He left all his other property to Maria Fitzherbert, who he claimed was his real wife. The royal couple swiftly separated.

Public sympathy lay with Caroline of Brunswick for having to suffer the indignity of George as a husband. Jane Austen commented, "Poor woman, I shall support her as long as I can, because she is a woman and because I hate her husband."

Charlotte was raised in her own household away from her parents' homes of Carlton House and Montagu House. It was not the happiest of childhoods, and she bore the brunt of their tug-of-war for her affections. George paid for Caroline to leave England in 1814. She travelled around Europe, generally courting controversy and acting impetuously, as she had done in England.

Tragic Death Leads to Royal Baby Race

In November 1817 Charlotte, married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1790–1865), died in childbirth. Her son did not survive. George had a huge memorial erected for her and the baby, partly to answer his critics who accused him of not paying Charlotte enough attention in her final days. Leopold was too distressed to write to anyone; George wrote to the Pope but did not trouble himself to inform Caroline. She found out about Charlotte and her grandson by chance as the letter for the Pope passed through Italy on route to the Vatican.

Several of George's brothers were almost as dissipated as him with their mistresses and illegitimate offspring. The royal baby race of 1818, in which three brothers became fathers to legitimate issues, helped to raise British spirits again.

George's Final Insult to Caroline

George tried to divorce Caroline twice but was thwarted both times. When George became king in 1820, he made his 1821 coronation a ticket-only event, and Caroline was not given a ticket. George refused to allow her to be crowned as Queen Consort. She processed to Westminster Abbey as was her right as George IV’s legal wife, but was turned away because she couldn’t gain entry without her ticket. She died a short while later. Britain’s population blamed their new king for her humiliation and demise. George was horrendous, but thoughts of a republic caused panic amongst the people and politicians. The French Revolution was a frightening episode in recent history that the British had no desire to repeat.

The King Is Dead, Long Live the King!

By the time George IV, the country’s worst and most hated king, died in 1830, he was almost blind and addicted to laudanum, and he consumed great amounts of brandy to help ease his pain. William, Duke of Clarence (1765–1837), his brother, was next in line to the throne. After "Silly Billy," who had no legitimate surviving heirs with his wife Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, the future hopes of the nation rested with the sweet, demure Princess Victoria of Kent, King's George and William's niece and heir, born on 24th May 1819. She would be able to fulfill the people’s expectations.

Sources:

Hadlow, Janice. (2015). The Strangest Family. Harper Collins

https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-IV

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/george_iv_king.shtml#:~:text=George%20IV%20%C2%A9%20Famous%20for%20his%20dissolute%20lifestyle,George%20III%20and%20his%20son%20were%20no%20exception

https://www.historyextra.com/period/georgian/two-sides-king-george-iv-is-reputation-deserved/

Why Do We Say OK? Quick History Answer

Why do we say OK? Image: Pixabay, Copyright free.

OK, Here's The Answer To Why We Use OK.

OK/O.K./Okay dates back to the 1830s. Surprised that it wasn't a recent addition to the English language? The widely accepted and etymologist approved tale about OK's origins takes us to Boston, America. 

Apparently, it was a hugely hilarious thing to misspell and abbreviate words at that time (no T.V. or radio so I guess they had to make their own entertainment) and some Bostonians couldn't resist the urge to utilise "oll korrect" from "all correct". It was inevitably shortened to OK. 

The newspaper editor Charles Gordon Greene picked up on this fad and on the 23rd March 1839 his paper, the Boston Morning Post published the term in an article about a rival publication's practices. Soon "oll korrect and OK" were being said by the masses and OK appeared on documents to note their correctness. 

Any initial resistance to using OK as a sign of being ill-educated and unable to spell well ebbed away, although even now it's rare to find OK in a formal document, speech or a high level discussion. 

U.S. President Martin Van Buren: Vote For OK

In 1840, Martin Van Buren, the Democrat President of the U.S. repurposed OK to suit his campaign to remain in office for another term. Van Buren was born in Old Kinderhook, New York and he used OK as his nickname. He urged people to vote for OK. His supporters opened OK or Old Kinderhook clubs to show their loyalty to him. 

Rival candidate William Henry Harrison, who eventually won the race to the White House, had his own versions of OK to taunt van Buren with including "Orful Kalamity". Poor Harrison's inauguration was held on 4th March 1841. He suffered his own "orful kalamity" when he died of pneumonia on the 4th April 1841. He remains the country's shortest serving President. 

Happily for OK, the major languages of the world all have an O and a K in their alphabets so OK travelled around the globe and grew ever more popular. Who doesn't know OK?

Ohne Korrectur? Oberst Kommandant? Och Aye?

According to Newsweek, another development came in the early 20th century when the printing and publishing trades used OK as a way to convey that a manuscript page needed no amendments.  OK in this instance originated from the German phrase "ohne korrectur" meaning "no changes" or corrections required.

Another German term for a military supreme commander, Oberst Kommandant was once believed to have been the origin of OK but this theory has been dismissed as readily as "Och Aye" from the Scottish for "oh yes." 

So, a popular abbreviation and misspelling trend that gave us other terms that have long since faded into obscurity like SP for small potatoes led to a more than OK revolution in communication. OK is almost 200 years old and it's here to stay.

How many times have you said or written OK today?

If you enjoyed reading this, try these posts:

https://www.historyfacts.co.uk/2025/02/how-the-anglo-saxons-created-todays-english-language.html
https://www.historyfacts.co.uk/2025/02/words-of-greek-origin-how-greek-words.html

Sources:

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12503686

https://www.historyhit.com/amazing-historical-facts-figures-and-fascinating-finds/

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/how-one-man-discovered-the-obscure-origins-of-the-word-ok-180953258/#:~:text=Read%20discovered%20that%20OK%20first,Providence%20Journal%2C%20a%20rival%20newspaper.

Mary, Queen of Scots' Fragile First Husband

 

King Francis II of France and his wife Mary, Queen of Scots. 

Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain. 

Mary Queen of Scots Grew Up in France

Aged five Mary, Queen of Scots was sent to France by her mother Marie of Guise because she was contracted to marry Francis (Francois), the eldest son of King Henri II of France and Catherine de Medici.

Mary's great-uncle Henry VIII of England wanted to trap her in a marriage with his Protestant heir, Edward, the future Edward VI. In France, Mary was far from her great uncle's clutches and immersed in the Catholic faith.

Francis was born on 19th January 1544 at the Chateau de Fontainebleau, and he was named in honour of his grandfather King Francis I of France. Francis suffered from respiratory issues and a stutter, and his physical development was slow.

Francis and Mary grew up at the royal chateau of St. Germain-En-Laye near Paris. He was easily distracted and happy to be led instead of lead. Mary treated Francis like a younger brother, and she was considerate of his well-being.

Catherine de Medici considered Mary a threat to her influence. Even at such an early age, she was evidently the stronger of the two. Would Mary rule Francis and France?

Fragile Francis, Dauphin of France

Francis’ formative years were spent under the governorship of Jean d’Humieres and with a tutor named Pierre Danes. His fencing instructor was Hector of Mantua, and his dance instruction came from Virgilio Bracesco.

Francis was given the governorship of the French region of Languedoc in 1546. When Francis I died on 31st March 1547, Henri became the king of France, and Francis rose to the role of Dauphin.

On the 4th April 1558, the king persuaded Mary to sign a document that was kept secret. She agreed that rule of Scotland and her claim to the English throne would pass to France if she died without giving Francis any children.

Francis and Mary were married at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris on 24th April 1558, and the streets were lined with people from early in the morning. Mary entered the cathedral after the Pope’s legate and Francis. That evening a fabulous ball was held.

The question that has bothered historians since the wedding day is whether Francis and Mary ever consummated their marriage.

King Francis II's Power Causes the Scots to Fight Back

A fifteen-year-old Francis became King Francis II of France on 10th July 1559 after Henri II died from the injuries he sustained in a jousting accident. At his coronation in Reims, the crown was held above his head because it was too heavy for the fragile Francis to bear.

Marie of Guise was swift to ask for Francis and Mary's assistance when she was ousted as regent of Scotland because the Scots believed their country was now effectively under French rule.

Elizabeth I of England also threatened peace; she was incensed that Mary's coat of arms showed her claim to the English throne, and she sent troops to demonstrate her displeasure. Marie of Guise's brothers, Mary's uncles Charles and Francis greatly influenced the king and queen. Francis was content to let the Guises and his wife make decisions that should have been his to make.

French soldiers were deployed to Scotland to help Marie. The French coffers were soon empty, the Scottish campaigns were not received well by the French, and reinforcements were not sent. The English negotiated a peace that was humiliating to the Scottish and the French. Francis and Mary were outraged by the terms agreed.

In early 1560 Scotland became a protestant country. Francis refused to sign the treaty agreeing to the peace or acceptance of protestant dominance in Scotland.

Sixteen Year Old King Francis II Dies

During 1560 Francis’ health deteriorated. On the 16th November 1560, he suffered a syncope which is a loss of consciousness and strength. His attack was caused by either meningitis or mastoiditis that developed from an ear infection.

Francis II's physician considered drilling a hole into Francis’ skull, known as trepanation or trepanning, to alleviate the symptoms, but he didn't pursue this. Francis realised that he was dying aged just sixteen, and he asked his mother to be kinder to Mary.

He passed away in Orleans on the 5th December 1560, and on the 23rd December, his body was interred in the royal burial site, the Basilica of Saint-Denis in Paris.

Catherine de Medici was appointed as the regent for her second son ten-year-old Charles IX (1550-1574). The Guises lost their power and left the palace.

Mary dressed in traditional white mourning, and she was given the name La Reine Blanche or the White Queen. Aged 18, she was dispatched back to Scotland. Catherine was glad to be rid of the threat Mary posed to her influence, although she managed to shed some crocodile tears as Mary's ship sailed away to her unimaginable future.

Sources

• François II, King of France, King Consort of Scots | Unofficial Royalty
  
• Francis II | Biography, Reign, Successor, & Facts | Britannica
• https://maryqueenofscots.net/peoplelist/francis-ii-king-france/

Augustus II the Strong: Horseshoe Breaking Ruler

 

Augustus II the Strong, horseshoe breaking, fox tossing ruler. 

Image: Wikipedia. Public Domain.

Why Was Augustus II Named "the Strong"?

Augustus the Strong, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony was also known as August II, August Friedrich, August II Wettin, August Mocny and August der Starke.

He was given the sobriquet strong for two reasons:

1. He could break horseshoes into pieces with his hands.
2. He could toss foxes, a highly dubious life skill.

He fathered numerous illegitimate children by an array of mistresses, at least ten of them, including Maria Aurora von Konigsmarck, who had Maurice de Saxe with him in 1696, and Princess Ursula Katharina Lubormirska, Imperial Princess of Teschen, who gave birth to John George, Chevalier de Saxe in 1704.

Augustus was born in Dresden (in modern-day Germany) on 12th May 1670. He was the second son of Elector John George III of Saxony from the ruling house of Wettin and his wife Princess Anna Sophie of Denmark. His brother John George was two years his senior.

Their father had an illegitimate son named John George Maximilian with the opera singer Margarita Salicola. She was proclaimed the "dame of honour" at the Dresden court.

From the Count of Meissen to the Elector of Saxony

Aged seventeen, well educated Augustus embarked on a two-year-long tour of Europe using the alias the Count of Meissen. His love of the arts, architecture and science blossomed, and throughout his reigns in Saxony and Poland-Lithuania, he created an impressive artistic and architectural legacy, including establishing Meissen Porcelain and the construction of the Zwinger Royal Palace in Dresden.

John George III died in 1691, and he was succeeded by Augustus' brother, John George IV. Smallpox claimed him on 27th April 1694; John George and his maligned wife, Elenore Erdmuth of Saxe-Eisenach, had no children.

John George IV's illegitimate daughter Wilhemina Maria by his mistress Magdalene Sybilla, Countess of Rochlitz was not in the line of succession. Magdalene died from smallpox a few weeks before John George IV succumbed. A short time prior to their deaths Augustus stopped his brother from murdering the Electress Elenore so that he could marry Magdalene Sybilla. The younger brother's hand was scarred by the elector's sword blade as he protected Elenore from harm.

Augustus decided to raise orphaned Wilhemina Maria at the Dresden court, and he formally recognised her as his niece.

Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Beyreuth

On 20th January 1693, Augustus married Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Beyreuth; from 1694 she was the Electress of Saxony. It was a miserable marriage. He found her dull, and she was understandably piqued by his succession of mistresses. She was appalled when, during the coronation procession, his mistress Maria Aurora von Konigsmarck was given a starring role and preferential treatment while she was sidelined.

The future Augustus III, their only child, was born in Dresden in October 1696. She appeared at her husband's side at public events, but the couple lived separate lives.

In 1696 John III Sobeski, King of Poland, passed away, and Augustus was one of eighteen candidates that vied to succeed him as the elected ruler of the magnificent Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania. To enhance the probability of success, Augustus, a Lutheran since birth, converted to Catholicism. Christiane refused to do the same, and she walked out of their marriage and into voluntary exile.

The Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania

Augustus' conversion caused dissent among the people of Saxony, but it won him his prize in the Catholic Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania as King Augustus II. Christiane never travelled to Poland or Lithuania, and she was not accorded a ceremonial crowning. It would have been a Catholic ceremony; she would not have participated as a devoted Lutheran.

The Turkish War against the Ottoman Empire had been causing death and destruction since 1683. It reached its conclusion in 1697, and the 1699 Treaty of Carlowitz awarded Poland more land, including Podolia, Kamieniec and the Ukraine to the west of the Dnieper River.

Augustus set his sights on the Swedish-seized territory of Livonia (modern-day Estonia and Latvia); his aim was to reclaim it for the commonwealth. The victory took twenty-one tumultuous years. The Great Northern War that his assault on Livonia triggered led to his exile in Saxony in 1704 as a bruised and impoverished Poland rejected him.

The Swedes invaded Saxony in 1706, and he was forced to abdicate and sign the Treaty of Altranstadt. In the document, he formally recognised Sweden's Stanislaw Leszczynski as the rightful King of Poland.

Augustus II's Death And The War Of The Polish Succession

After Russia, his ally in the Great and Second Northern Wars, won the Battle of Poltova in 1709, Augustus declared the 1706 treaty null and void. He signed the Treaty of Thorns with Russia, which saw Leszcynski ousted with Russian assistance. Augustus resumed his reign in Poland-Lithuania.

In the years following his reinstatement, the Russians interfered in Polish internal affairs, which strained relations. Augustus tried to create a hereditary monarchy in Poland so that the Russian influence could be reduced. He was unsuccessful in making this formal.

Christiane died in 1727 in Pretzche on the River Elbe in Saxony. She was buried in the parish church. Neither her husband nor her son attended her funeral.

When Augustus II the Strong died in Warsaw on 1st February 1733, the War of the Polish Succession began. Russia and Austria wanted to install Augustus III as if there was a hereditary monarchy; the Poles were in favour of Leszcynski's return. The conflict rumbled on until the 5th October 1733 when Augustus III won the throne and Leszcynski renounced his claim. 

Augustus II's heart was taken to Dresden Cathedral. The rest of him was laid to rest in the Wawel Cathedral in Warsaw, Poland.

Sources

• SAXONY SHINES UNDER AUGUSTUS THE STRONG | Alange-Soehne.com
  
• AUGUSTUS II., THE STRONG | JewishEncyclopedia.com
  
• Augustus II | Facts, Biography, Children, & Significance | Britannica